A general outline of Roman London in late antiquity, with the modern banks of the Thames. Discovered roads drawn as double lines; conjectural roads, single lines.Londinium was a settlement established on the current site of the around AD 43. Its bridge over the turned the city into a and major, serving as a major commercial centre in until its abandonment during.Following in the mid-1st century, early Londinium occupied the relatively small area of 1.4 km 2 (0.5 sq mi), roughly equivalent to the size of present-day, with a fortified garrison on one of its hills. In the year 60 or 61, the under forced the garrison to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the defeat of by the, the city was rebuilt as a and recovered within about a decade.
During the later decades of, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming 's largest city. By the turn of the century, Londinium had grown to perhaps 30,000 or 60,000 people, replacing as the provincial capital and by, Londinium was at its height. Its forum and basilica were one of the largest structures north of the when the visited Londinium in 122.
Excavations have discovered evidence of a major fire that destroyed most of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population.Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion resulted. Londinium supported a smaller but stable settlement population as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in —the by-product of urban household waste, manure, ceramic tile, and non-farm debris of settlement occupation, which accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries. Sometime between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city.
Indeed, close study calls the very question into question. 'Why did Rome fall?' May be a line of inquiry that has no clear resolution because the question itself is. The Roman army was the backbone of the empire’s power, and the Romans managed to conquer so many tribes, clans, confederations, and empires because of their military superiority. It was also the source of the empire’s economic and political strength, ensuring domestic peace so that trade could flourish.
Along with and, this wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of the old. Main article:The etymology of the name Londinium is unknown.
Following 's, it was from an named, son of. There is no evidence such a figure ever existed. Instead, the Latin name was probably based on a as. Londinion. Morphologically, this points to a structure of two suffixes: -in-jo. However, the Roman Londinium was not the immediate source of English 'London' (: Lunden), as would have caused the name to have been Lyndon. This suggests an alternative form Londonion; alternatively, the local pronunciation in may have changed the pronunciation of Londinium to Lundeiniu or Lundein, which would also have avoided i-mutation in Old English.
The list of the included in the 9th-century precisely notes London in as Lundem or Lundein. Location. A map ofThe site guarded the Romans' bridgehead on the north bank of the and a. It centered on and the, but expanded west to and east to. Just prior to the Roman conquest, the area had been contested by the based to its west and the based to its east; it bordered the realm of the on the south bank of the Thames.The Roman city ultimately covered at least the area of the, whose boundaries are largely defined. Londinium's waterfront on the Thames ran from around in the west to the present site of the in the east, around 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi). The northern wall reached and near the, a course now marked by the street 'London Wall'.
Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside the city proper. A round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear. Substantial suburbs existed at in and around the southern end of the Thames bridge in, where inscriptions suggest a of was located.
Status The status of Londinium is uncertain. It seems to have been founded as a mere and remained as such even after its recovery from. Lists it as one of the cities of the, but (Roman ) was their ( civitas). Starting as a small fort guarding the northern end of the new bridge across the River Thames, Londinium grew to become an important port for trade between and the on the continent. The initial lack of private (plentiful elsewhere) suggests military or even Imperial ownership.
wrote that, at the time of the uprising of, 'Londinium. Though undistinguished by the name of ', was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels.' Depending on the time of its creation, the modesty of Londonium's may have reflected its early elevation to ( municipium) status or may have reflected an administrative concession to a low-ranking but major settlement.
It had almost certainly been granted ( colonia) status prior to the complete replanning of the city's street plan attending the erection of around the year 120.By this time, Britain's provincial administration had also almost certainly been moved to Londinium from ( in ). The precise date of this change is unknown and no surviving source explicitly states that Londinium was 'the of Britain' but there are several strong indications of this status: 2nd-century roofing tiles have been found marked by the ' or ' of the of at Londinium', the remains of a 's palace and tombstones belonging to the governor's staff have been discovered, and the city was well defended and armed, with a new military camp erected at the beginning of the 2nd century, despite being far from any frontier. Despite some corruption to the text, the list of bishops for the indicates that either or came from Londinium. The city seems to have been the seat of the and one of the provincial governors following the around the year 300; it had been renamed Augusta—a common epithet of provincial capitals—by 368. History Founding. See also:Unlike many cities of Roman Britain, Londinium was not placed on the site of a Celtic. Prior to the arrival of the, the area was almost certainly lightly rolling open countryside traversed by numerous streams.
Archaeologist Lacey Wallace notes that 'Because no settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial.' The city's Latin name derived from an originally one.
However, significant pre-Roman finds in the Thames, especially the (, perhaps 4th-century BC) and the (perhaps 1st-century BC), both assumed to be votive offerings deposited a couple of miles upstream of Londinium, suggest the general area was busy and significant. It has been suggested that the area was where a number of territories met. There was probably a ford in that part of the river; other Roman and Celtic finds suggest this was perhaps where the opposed crossing describes took place.Londinium grew up around the point on the narrow enough for the construction of a but still deep enough to handle the era's seagoing ships. Its placement on permitted easier access for ships sailing upstream. The remains of a massive base for such a bridge were found in 1981 close by the modern.
Some -era ditches have been discovered, but archaeological excavations undertaken since the 1970s by the Department of Urban Archaeology at the (now ) have suggested the early settlement was largely the product of. A timber drain by the side of the main excavated at has been dated by to AD 47, which is likely to be the foundation date.Following its foundation in the mid-1st century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, about 350 acres (1.4 km 2) or roughly the area of present-day.
Archaeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the Empire and that local markets existed for such objects.Roads. A map of the known, highlighting the routes included in theOf the fifteen British routes recorded in the 2nd- or 3rd-century, seven ran to or from Londinium.
Most of these have been shown to have been initially constructed near the time of the city's foundation around AD 47. The roads are now known by or names, as their original Roman names have been entirely lost due to the lack of written and inscribed sources. (It was customary elsewhere to name roads after the during whose principate they were completed, but the number and vicinity of routes completed during the time of would seem to have made this impractical in Britain's case.)The road from the Kentish ports of , , and via seems to have first crossed the Thames at a near before being diverted north to the new bridge at London. The Romans enabled the road to cross the marshy terrain without subsidence by laying down substrates of one to three layers of oak logs. This route, now known as, then passed through the town from the bridgehead in a straight line to reconnect with its northern extension towards and the legionary base at. The ran northeast across to and thence northeast along to. Ran north from the city to and.
The connected Londinium to and its roads to points west over near modern. A minor road led southwest to the city's main cemetery and the old routes to the ford at Westminster. To did not reach Londinium proper but ran from the bridgehead in the southern suburb at. These roads varied from 12–20 m (39–66 ft) wide.After, the streets within Londinium itself largely adhered to a grid.
By analogy with, the main east-west street is now generally called the Via Decumana ('Tenth Way'), while the main north-south street (interrupted by the forum north of its intersection with the Via Decumana) is known as the Via Principalis ('Headquarters Way'). These names would not have been used for the civilian settlement at the time. The main streets were 9–10 m (30–33 ft) wide, while side streets were usually about 5 m (16 ft) wide. The revived English interest in, particularly during the, when she was used as a symbol for and the. ( by, 1860s, cast by in 1902.)In the year 60 or 61, a little more than ten years after Londinium was founded, died.
He had possibly been installed by the Romans after the 's failed revolt against 's disarmament of the allied tribes in AD 47 or may have assisted the Romans against his tribesmen during that revolt. His will had divided his wealth and lands between Rome and his two daughters, but forbade female inheritance and it had become common practice to treat allied kingdoms as life estates that were annexed upon the ruler's death, as had occurred in. Including called in all the king's outstanding loans at once and confiscated the property of both the king and his nobles. Records that, when the king's wife objected, the Romans flogged her, raped her two daughters, and enslaved their nobles and kinsmen. Then led against Roman rule.Two hundred ill-equipped men were sent to defend the provincial capital and at Camulodunum, probably from the garrison at Londinium. The Iceni and their allies overwhelmed them and razed the city.
The under, coming south from the, was., meanwhile, escaped with his treasure to, probably via Londinium. Had been leading the and in the invasion of now known as the; hearing of the rising, he immediately returned along Watling Street with the legions' cavalry. An early historical record of London appears in 's of his actions upon arriving and finding the state of the 9th Legion:At first, Paulinus hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there. Eventually, his numerical inferiority—and the price only too clearly paid by 's rashness—decided him to sacrifice the single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure.
The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy.Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath the city at this date. Suetonius then returned to the legions' slower infantry, who the British army, slaughtering as many as 70,000 men and camp followers. There is a long-standing folklore belief that this battle took place at, simply because as a mediaeval village it was known as Battle Bridge. Suetonius's flight back to his men, the razing of , and the battle shortly thereafter at 'a place with narrow jaws, backed by a forest', speaks against the tradition and no supporting archaeological evidence has been yet discovered. 1st century. A model of London in 85–90 on display in the, depicting the first bridge over the ThamesAfter being sacked, the city was rebuilt as a, its streets generally adhering to a grid skewed by major roads passing from the bridgehead and by changes in alignment produced by crossings over the local streams.
It recovered after about a decade. A was erected at on. The first was constructed in the 70s or 80s and has been excavated, showing it had an open courtyard with a and several shops around it, altogether measuring about 100 m × 50 m (330 ft × 160 ft). The basilica would have functioned as the city's administrative heart, hearing and seating the town's local senate. It formed the north side of the forum, whose south entrance was located along the north side of the intersection of the present,. Forums elsewhere typically had a civic temple constructed within the enclosed market area; British sites usually did not, instead placing a smaller shrine for Roman services somewhere within the basilica.
The first forum in Londinium seems to have had a full temple, but placed outside just west of the forum.During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly and quickly became Roman Britain's largest city, although most of its houses continued to be made of wood. By the turn of the century, Londinium was perhaps as large as 60,000 people, and had replaced (Colchester) as the provincial capital. A large building discovered near has had its foundation dated to this era and is assumed to have been the governor's palace. It boasted a garden, pools, and several large halls, some of which were decorated with. It stood on the east bank of the, near where it joins the Thames.
May originally have been part of the palace's main entrance. Another site dating to this era is the ( thermae) at, which remained in use prior to its demolition around the year 200. Were legal but taxed. A diagram of the Roman structures from the port of Londinium ( c.
AD 100) excavated along the bank of the Thames.The bulk of the Roman port was quickly rebuilt after Boudicca's rebellion when the waterfront was extended with gravel to permit a sturdy wharf to be built perpendicular to the shore. The port was built in four sections, starting upstream of the and working down towards the at the center of Londinium.
Expansion of the flourishing port continued into the 3rd century. Scraps of, leather straps, and military stamps on building timbers suggest that the site was constructed by the city's. Major imports included, jewelry,. Only two large warehouses are known, implying that Londinium functioned as a bustling trade center rather than a supply depot and distribution center like near. 2nd century.
Reconstruction drawing of Londinium c. 120 ADDuring the early 2nd century, Londinium was at its height, having recovered from the fire and again had between 45,000 and 60,000 inhabitants around the year 140, with many more stone houses and public buildings erected. Some areas were tightly packed with ( domus). The town had piped water and a 'fairly-sophisticated' drainage system. The gubernatorial palace was rebuilt and an expanded was built around the earlier one over a period of 30 years from around 90 to 120 into an almost perfect square measuring 168 m × 167 m (551 ft × 548 ft). Its three-storey was likely visible across the city and largest in the empire north of the; the marketplace itself rivaled those in and was the largest in the north before (, Germany) became an imperial capital.
The city's temple of was renovated, public and private were erected, and a ( ) was erected around the year 120 that maintained the city garrison northwest of town. The fort was a square (with small rounded corners) measuring more than 200 m × 200 m (660 ft × 660 ft) and covering more than 12 acres (4.9 ha). Each side had a central gatehouse and stone towers were erected at the corners and at points along each wall., constructed in AD 70, is situated at; its would have been free of charge. When the ancient Romans left in the 4th century the amphitheatre lay derelict for hundreds of years. In the 11th century the area was reoccupied and by the 12th century the first Guildhall was built next to it. A large on both banks near was discovered during the 1980s.
A temple complex with two Romano-British temples was excavated at Empire Square, Long Lane, Southwark in 2002/2003. A large house there may have been a guesthouse.
A marble slab with a dedication to the god Mars was discovered in the temple complex. The inscription mentions the Londoners, the earliest known reference naming the people of London. A floor from Londinium By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium had many large, well-equipped stone buildings, some of which were richly adorned with and, and had subfloor.
The was built next to the waterfront and had its own bath. In addition to such structures reducing the city's building density, however, Londinium also seems to have shrunk in both size and population in the second half of the 2nd century. The cause is uncertain but is considered likely, as the is recorded decimating other areas of Western Europe between 165 and 190. The end of imperial expansion in Britain after Hadrian's decision to build may have also damaged the city's economy. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion occurred.
Londinium remained well populated as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in, one that accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries.London Wall. A surviving fragment of the behind (2005)Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the, a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. Along with and, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The wall was originally about 5 km (3 mi) long, 6 m (20 ft) high, and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) thick. Its dry moat ( fossa) was about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep and 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) wide. In the 19th century, estimated its length from the west to at about one mile (1.6 km) and its breadth from the northern wall to the bank of the Thames at around half that. In addition to small pedestrian gates like the one by, it had four main gates: and in the northeast at the and and and in the west along at the road that divided for travel and and at another road that ran along the Thames to the city's main cemetery and the old ford at.
The wall partially utilized the army's existing fort, strengthening its outer wall with a second course of stone to match the rest of the course. The fort had two gates of its own— to the north and another to the west—but these were not along major roads. Was eventually added, perhaps to replace the west gate of the fort. (The names of all these gates are medieval, as they continued to be occasionally refurbished and replaced until their demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries to permit widening the roads.) The wall initially left the riverbank undefended: this was corrected in the.Although the exact reason for the wall's construction is unknown, some historians have connected it with the invasion of the 180s. Others link it with, the who attempted to in the 190s.
The wall survived another 1,600 years and still roughly defines the 's perimeter.3rd century. Ulpius Silvanus's depicting killing the, discovered in the ruins of the.Septimius Severus defeated Albinus in 197 and shortly afterwards divided the province of Britain into and halves, with the former controlled by a new governor in.
Despite the smaller administrative area, the economic stimulus provided by the Wall and by Septimius Severus's campaigns in somewhat revived London's fortunes in the early 3rd century. The northwest fort was abandoned and dismantled but archaeological evidence points to renewed construction activity from this period.
The rediscovered in 1954 dates from around 240, when it was erected on the east bank at the head of navigation on the about 200 m (660 ft) from the Thames. From about 255 onwards, raiding by led to the construction of a riverside wall as well. It ran roughly along the course of present-day, which then roughly formed the shoreline.
Large collapsed sections of this wall were excavated at and the in the 1970s. Carausian Revolt. The ' Trier medallion' showing a woman kneeling in front of a Roman soldier at the city walls, thanking him for bringing 's rule to an endIn 286, the emperor issued a death sentence against, admiral of the 's ( Classis Britannica), on charges of having abetted and and of having embezzled recovered treasure. Carausius responded by consolidating his allies and territory and revolting.
After fending off Maximian's first assault in 288, he declared a new and issued coins to that effect. 's sack of his Gallic base at , however, led his treasurer to assassinate and replace him.
In 296, Chlorus mounted an invasion of Britain that prompted Allectus's Frankish mercenaries to sack Londinium. They were only stopped by the arrival of a flotilla of Roman warships on the Thames, which slaughtered the survivors. The event was commemorated by the golden 'Trier Medallion', Chlorus on one side and, on the other, a woman kneeling at the city wall welcoming a mounted Roman soldier. Another memorial to the return of Londinium to Roman control was the construction of a new set of forum baths around the year 300. The structures were modest enough that they were previously identified as parts of the forum and market but are now recognized as elaborate and luxurious baths including a with two southern pools and an eastern.4th century. See also: andFollowing the revolt, the saw the British administration restructured. Londinium is universally supposed to have been the capital of one of them, but it remains unclear where the new provinces were, whether there were initially three or four in total, and whether represented a fifth province or a renaming of an older one.
In the 12th century, listed 'Londonia' as the capital of, having had and severed from the territory of. Modern scholars more often list Londinium as the capital of on the assumption that the presence of the in London would have required its provincial governor to outrank the others.The gubernatorial palace and old large forum seem to have fallen out of use around 300, but in general the first half of the appears to have been a prosperous time for Britain, for the surrounding London appear to have flourished during this period. The was rededicated, probably to. A list of the 16 was recorded by in the 12th century, claiming the city's community was founded in the 2nd century under the legendary and his missionary saints,.
None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop or at the 314 seems to have come from Londinium. The location of Londinium's original cathedral is uncertain. The present structure of upon was designed by following the in 1666 but it stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium and medieval legends tied it to the city's earliest Christian community. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 4th-century building on was discovered: built sometime between 350 and 400, it seems to have mimicked 's in the imperial capital at on a still-larger scale.
It was about 100 m (330 ft) long by about 50 m (160 ft) wide. Excavations by David Sankey of established it was constructed out of stone taken from other buildings, including a veneer of black marble. It was probably dedicated to St Paul.From 340 onwards, northern Britain was repeatedly attacked. In 360, a large-scale attack forced the emperor to send troops to deal with the problem. Large efforts were made to improve Londinium's defenses around the same time.
At least 22 were added to the city walls to provide platforms for and the present state of the river wall suggested hurried repair work around this time. In 367, the saw a coordinated invasion of Picts, Gaels, and Saxons joined with a mutiny of troops along.
Dealt with the problem over the next few years, using Londinium—then known as 'Augusta'—as his base. It may have been at this point that one of the existing provinces was renamed, although the account of Theodosius's actions describes it as a province recovered from the enemy.In 382, organized all of the British-based troops and attempted to establish himself as. The event was obviously important to the Britons, as 'Macsen Wledig' would remain a major figure in and several dynasties claimed descent from him.
He was probably responsible for London's new church in the 370s or 380s. He was initially successful but was defeated by at the 388. A new stretch of the river wall near Tower Hill seems to have been built further from the shore at some point over the next decade. 5th century. Around, without speculative provincial borders.With few troops left in Britain, many towns—including Londinium— over the next few decades. Many of London's public buildings had fallen into disrepair by this pointand excavations of the show signs of rapid disuse.
Between 407 and 409, seriously weakening communication between Rome and Britain. Trade broke down. Officials went unpaid and Romano-British troops elected their own leaders. Declared himself emperor over the west and crossed the, an act considered the since the subsequently directed the Britons to look to their own defence rather than send another garrison force. Surviving accounts are scanty and mixed with Welsh and Saxon legends concerning,. Even archaeological evidence of Londinium during this period is minimal.Despite remaining on the list of Roman provinces, Romano-Britain seems to have dropped their remaining loyalties to Rome.
Raiding by the, Picts, and Saxons continued but records a time of luxury and plenty which is sometimes attributed to reduced taxation. Archaeologists have found evidence that a small number of wealthy families continued to maintain a Roman lifestyle until the middle of the 5th century, inhabiting villas in the southeastern corner of the city and importing luxuries. Medieval accounts state that that established (the Adventus Saxonum) did not begin in earnest until some time in the 440s and 450s. Recorded that the Britons fled to Londinium in terror after their defeat at the (probably ), but nothing further is said.
By the end of the 5th century, the city was largely an uninhabited ruin, its large church on Tower Hill burnt to the ground.Over the next century, and arrived and established tribal areas and kingdoms. The area of the Roman city was administered as part of the – Essex, although the Saxon settlement of was not within the Roman walls but to the west in.
It was not until the that moved the settlement back within the safety of the Roman walls, which gave it the name. The foundations of the river wall, however, were undermined over time and had completely collapsed by the 11th century. Memory of the earlier settlement survived: it is generally identified as the Cair Lundem counted among the 28 of included in the traditionally attributed to. Demographics The population of Londinium is estimated to have peaked around 100 AD when it was still the capital of Britannia; at this point estimates for the population vary between about 30,000, or about 60,000 people. But there seems to have been a large decline after about 150 AD, possibly as the regional economic centres developed, and Londinium as the main port for imported goods became less significant. The which swept the Empire from 165 to 180 may have had a big effect. Pottery workshops outside the city in and appear to have ended production around 160, and the population may have fallen by as much as two thirds.Londonium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including those with backgrounds from Britannia, the,.
Recent research of human remains in Roman cemeteries states that the 'presence of people born in London with African ancestry is not an unusual or atypical result for Londinium.' A 2016 study of the isotope analysis of 20 bodies from various periods suggested that at least 12 had grown up locally, with four being immigrants, and the last four unclear. Excavation. A being excavated at 56.Many ruins remain buried beneath London, although understanding them can be difficult. Owing to London's, which consists of a Taplow Terrace deep bed of brickearth, sand, and gravel over, Roman gravel roads can only be identified as such if they were repeatedly relayered or if the spans of gravel can be traced across several sites.
The minimal remains from wooden structures are easy to miss and stone buildings may leave foundations, but—as with the —they were often dismantled for stone during the Middle Ages and early modern period. The atThe first extensive archaeological review of the Roman city of London was done in the 17th century after the of 1666. 's renovation of on found no evidence supporting 's contention that it had been built over a Roman temple to the goddess. The extensive rebuilding of London in the 19th century and following during also allowed for large parts of old London to be recorded and preserved while modern updates were made. The construction of the led to the discovery of the in 1848.
In the 1860s, excavations by uncovered a large number of human skulls and almost no other bones in the bed of the. The discovery recalls a passage in 's where besieged the last remnants of the 's army at 'Londonia'.
Having battered the town's walls with constructed by allied Britons, Asclepiodotus accepted 's surrender only to have the rush upon them, them and throwing the heads into the river 'Gallemborne'. Asclepiodotus's siege was an actual event that occurred in AD 296, but further skull finds beneath the 3rd-century wall place at least some of the slaughter before its construction, leading most modern scholars to attribute them to. In 1947, the city's northwest fortress of the city garrison was discovered. In 1954, excavations of what was thought to have been an early church instead revealed the, which was relocated to permit building over its original site.
(The building erected at the time has since been demolished, and plans to return the temple to its former location are under way.) Archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London in the 1970s. What was not found during this time has been built over making it very difficult to study or discover anything new. Another phase of archaeological work followed the deregulation of the in 1986, which led to extensive new construction in the City's financial district. From 1991, many excavations were undertaken by the 's, although it was spun off into the separately-run in 2011 following legislation to address fiasco.Displays. A reconstructed ( culina) at the (2014)Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings were formerly housed in the.
These merged after 1965 into the present near the., a separate branch dealing with the history of London's, opened on the in 2003. Other finds from Roman London continue to be held by the.Much of the surviving wall is medieval, but Roman-era stretches are visible near, in a hotel courtyard at 8–10 Coopers Row, and in off Wood Street. A section of the river wall is visible inside the.
Parts of the amphitheatre are on display at the. The southwestern tower of the Roman fort northwest of town can still be seen at Noble Street. Occasionally, Roman sites are incorporated into the foundations of new buildings for future study, but these are not generally available to the public. See also. Note that this image includes both the, which was demolished in the 3rd century, and the, which was abandoned around the same time.
The identification of the ' remains conjectural. Galfredus Monemutensis Geoffrey of Monmouth. Translated by J.A. As, in Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at. ^ Haverfield, p. 145.
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(1867), Curiosities of London (2nd ed.), J.C. Hotten,. Wallace, Lacey M., The Origin of Roman London, 2014, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, 570External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to., History of World Cities.,., from London: A History., Museum of London Archive.